Hoover Dam , originally known as Boulder Dam from to , when it was officially renamed Hoover Dam by a joint resolution of Congress, is a concrete arch-gravity dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River , on the border between the U. It was constructed between and during the Great Depression and was dedicated on September 30, , by President Franklin D.

Its construction was the result of a massive effort involving thousands of workers, and cost over one hundred lives.

The dam was named after President Herbert Hoover. Since about , the Black Canyon and nearby Boulder Canyon had been investigated for their potential to support a dam that would control floods, provide irrigation water and produce hydroelectric power.

In , Congress authorized the project. The winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium called Six Companies, Inc. Such a large concrete structure had never been built before, and some of the techniques were unproven. The torrid summer weather and lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties.

Nevertheless, Six Companies turned over the dam to the federal government on March 1, , more than two years ahead of schedule. Hoover Dam impounds Lake Mead , the largest reservoir in the United States by volume when it is full. The dam's generators provide power for public and private utilities in Nevada, Arizona, and California. Hoover Dam is a major tourist attraction; nearly a million people tour the dam each year. The heavily traveled U. As the United States developed the Southwest, the Colorado River was seen as a potential source of irrigation water.

An initial attempt at diverting the river for irrigation purposes occurred in the late s, when land speculator William Beatty built the Alamo Canal just north of the Mexican border; the canal dipped into Mexico before running to a desolate area Beatty named the Imperial Valley. Even after the waterway was stabilized, it proved unsatisfactory because of constant disputes with landowners on the Mexican side of the border.

As the technology of electric power transmission improved, the Lower Colorado was considered for its hydroelectric -power potential. Edison allowed land options it held on the river to lapse—including an option for what became the site of Hoover Dam. In the following years, the Bureau of Reclamation BOR , known as the Reclamation Service at the time, also considered the Lower Colorado as the site for a dam.

In , after considering it for several years, the Reclamation Service finally rejected the proposal, citing doubts about the unproven technique and questions as to whether it would in fact save money. In , the Reclamation Service presented a report calling for the development of a dam on the Colorado River for flood control and electric power generation. The report was principally authored by Davis, and was called the Fall-Davis report after Interior Secretary Albert Fall.

The Fall-Davis report cited use of the Colorado River as a federal concern, because the river's basin covered several states, and the river eventually entered Mexico.

The Service investigated Black Canyon and found it ideal; a railway could be laid from the railhead in Las Vegas to the top of the dam site.

The Hoover Dam by David Moore

With little guidance on water allocation from the Supreme Court , proponents of the dam feared endless litigation. A Colorado attorney proposed that the seven states which fell within the river's basin California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, Colorado and Wyoming form an interstate compact , with the approval of Congress. Such compacts were authorized by Article I of the United States Constitution but had never been concluded among more than two states.

In , representatives of seven states met with then- Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover. Colorado decision undermining the claims of the upstream states, they became anxious to reach an agreement. The resulting Colorado River Compact was signed on November 24, Legislation to authorize the dam was introduced repeatedly by Representative Phil Swing R-Calif.

The Mississippi flood made Midwestern and Southern congressmen and senators more sympathetic toward the dam project. On March 12, , the failure of the St. Francis Dam , constructed by the city of Los Angeles, caused a disastrous flood that killed up to people. As that dam was a curved-gravity type, [18] similar in design to the arch-gravity as was proposed for the Black Canyon dam, opponents claimed that the Black Canyon dam's safety could not be guaranteed.

Congress authorized a board of engineers to review plans for the proposed dam. The Colorado River Board found the project feasible, but warned that should the dam fail, every downstream Colorado River community would be destroyed, and that the river might change course and empty into the Salton Sea.

On December 21, President Coolidge signed the bill authorizing the dam. This occurred on March 6, with Utah's ratification; Arizona did not approve it until Even before Congress approved the Boulder Canyon Project, the Bureau of Reclamation was considering what kind of dam should be used. Officials eventually decided on a massive concrete arch-gravity dam , the design of which was overseen by the Bureau's chief design engineer John L.

The monolithic dam would be thick at the bottom and thin near the top, and would present a convex face towards the water above the dam. The curving arch of the dam would transmit the water's force into the abutments, in this case the rock walls of the canyon.

On January 10, , the Bureau made the bid documents available to interested parties, at five dollars a copy. The government was to provide the materials; but the contractor was to prepare the site and build the dam.

The contractor had seven years to build the dam, or penalties would ensue. The Wattis Brothers , heads of the Utah Construction Company , were interested in bidding on the project, but lacked the money for the performance bond. They lacked sufficient resources even in combination with their longtime partners, Morrison-Knudsen , which employed the nation's leading dam builder, Frank Crowe. They formed a joint venture to bid for the project with Pacific Bridge Company of Portland, Oregon ; Henry J.

Shea Company of Portland, Oregon. The name was descriptive and was an inside joke among the San Franciscans in the bid, where "Six Companies" was also a Chinese benevolent association in the city. The city of Las Vegas had lobbied hard to be the headquarters for the dam construction, closing its many speakeasies when the decision maker, Secretary of the Interior Ray Wilbur came to town.

Instead, Wilbur announced in early that a model city was to be built in the desert near the dam site. This town became known as Boulder City, Nevada. Construction of a rail line joining Las Vegas and the dam site began in September Soon after the dam was authorized, increasing numbers of unemployed people converged on southern Nevada. Las Vegas, then a small city of some 5,, saw between 10, and 20, unemployed descend on it.

Known as McKeeversville, the camp was home to men hoping for work on the project, together with their families. As part of the contract, Six Companies, Inc. The original timetable called for Boulder City to be built before the dam project began, but President Hoover ordered work on the dam to begin in March rather than in October. Workers with families were left to provide their own accommodations until Boulder City could be completed, [36] and many lived in Ragtown. The Industrial Workers of the World IWW or "Wobblies" , though much-reduced from their heyday as militant labor organizers in the early years of the century, hoped to unionize the Six Companies workers by capitalizing on their discontent.

They sent eleven organizers, [40] several of whom were arrested by Las Vegas police. Although the workers sent away the organizers, not wanting to be associated with the "Wobblies", they formed a committee to represent them with the company. The committee drew up a list of demands that evening and presented them to Crowe the following morning. The workers hoped that Crowe, the general superintendent of the job, would be sympathetic; instead he gave a scathing interview to a newspaper, describing the workers as "malcontents".

On the morning of the 9th, Crowe met with the committee and told them that management refused their demands, was stopping all work, and was laying off the entire work force, except for a few office workers and carpenters. Concerned that a violent confrontation was imminent, most workers took their paychecks and left for Las Vegas to await developments.

On August 13, the company began hiring workers again, and two days later, the strike was called off. Living conditions began to improve as the first residents moved into Boulder City in late A second labor action took place in July , as construction on the dam wound down.

When a Six Companies manager altered working times to force workers to take lunch on their own time, workers responded with a strike. The company agreed to ask the Federal government to supplement the pay, but no money was forthcoming from Washington.

Before the dam could be built, the Colorado River needed to be diverted away from the construction site. To accomplish this, four diversion tunnels were driven through the canyon walls, two on the Nevada side and two on the Arizona side. To meet the deadline, Six Companies had to complete work by early , since only in late fall and winter was the water level in the river low enough to safely divert. Tunneling began at the lower portals of the Nevada tunnels in May Shortly afterward, work began on two similar tunnels in the Arizona canyon wall.

In March , work began on lining the tunnels with concrete. First the base, or invert, was poured. Gantry cranes , running on rails through the entire length of each tunnel were used to place the concrete. The sidewalls were poured next. Movable sections of steel forms were used for the sidewalls. Finally, using pneumatic guns, the overheads were filled in.

This was done by exploding a temporary cofferdam protecting the Arizona tunnels while at the same time dumping rubble into the river until its natural course was blocked. Following the completion of the dam, the entrances to the two outer diversion tunnels were sealed at the opening and halfway through the tunnels with large concrete plugs. The downstream halves of the tunnels following the inner plugs are now the main bodies of the spillway tunnels. To protect the construction site from the Colorado River and to facilitate the river's diversion, two cofferdams were constructed.

Work on the upper cofferdam began in September , even though the river had not yet been diverted.

When the cofferdams were in place and the construction site was drained of water, excavation for the dam foundation began. For the dam to rest on solid rock, it was necessary to remove accumulated erosion soils and other loose materials in the riverbed until sound bedrock was reached. Work on the foundation excavations was completed in June Since the dam was an arch-gravity type, the side-walls of the canyon would bear the force of the impounded lake.

Therefore, the side-walls were excavated too, to reach virgin rock as weathered rock might provide pathways for water seepage. The men who removed this rock were called "high scalers". While suspended from the top of the canyon with ropes, the high-scalers climbed down the canyon walls and removed the loose rock with jackhammers and dynamite.

Falling objects were the most common cause of death on the dam site; the high scalers' work thus helped ensure worker safety. The construction site had, even then, become a magnet for tourists; the high scalers were prime attractions and showed off for the watchers. The high scalers received considerable media attention, with one worker dubbed the "Human Pendulum" for swinging co-workers and, at other times, cases of dynamite across the canyon.

When workers wearing such headgear were struck hard enough to inflict broken jaws, they sustained no skull damage, Six Companies ordered thousands of what initially were called "hard boiled hats" later " hard hats " and strongly encouraged their use. The cleared, underlying rock foundation of the dam site was reinforced with grout, called a grout curtain.

This was done to stabilize the rock, to prevent water from seeping past the dam through the canyon rock, and to limit "uplift"—upward pressure from water seeping under the dam. The workers were under severe time constraints due to the beginning of the concrete pour, and when they encountered hot springs or cavities too large to readily fill, they moved on without resolving the problem. A total of 58 of the holes were incompletely filled. It found that the work had been incompletely done, and was based on less than a full understanding of the canyon's geology.

New holes were drilled from inspection galleries inside the dam into the surrounding bedrock. Bureau of Reclamation engineers calculated that if the dam was built in a single continuous pour, the concrete would take years to cool, and the resulting stresses would cause the dam to crack and crumble. When an individual block had cured and had stopped contracting, the pipes were filled with grout.

Grout was also used to fill the hairline spaces between columns, which were grooved to increase the strength of the joins. The concrete was delivered in huge steel buckets 7 feet high 2.

The buckets were then suspended from aerial cableways , which were used to deliver the bucket to a specific column. Although there are myths that men were caught in the pour and are entombed in the dam to this day, each bucket only deepened the concrete in a form by an inch, and Six Companies engineers would not have permitted a flaw caused by the presence of a human body.

Overall, there is enough concrete in the dam to pave a two-lane highway from San Francisco to New York. With most work finished on the dam itself the powerhouse remained uncompleted , a formal dedication ceremony was arranged for September 30, , to coincide with a western tour being made by President Franklin D.

Most work had been completed by the dedication, and Six Companies negotiated with the government through late , and early , to settle all claims and arrange for the formal transfer of the dam to the Federal Government. The parties came to an agreement and on March 1, , Secretary Ickes formally accepted the dam on behalf of the government. Six Companies was not required to complete work on one item, a concrete plug for one of the bypass tunnels, as the tunnel had to be used to take in irrigation water until the powerhouse went into operation.

Tierney, a surveyor who drowned on December 20, , while looking for an ideal spot for the dam. Tierney, fell from an intake tower. Included in the fatality list are three workers, one in and two in , who committed suicide onsite.

Hoover Dam 'bathtub ring' shows level of Lake Mead dropping amid drought | Daily Mail Online

Not included in the official number of fatalities were deaths that were recorded as pneumonia. Workers alleged that this diagnosis was a cover for death from carbon monoxide poisoning brought on by the use of gasoline-fueled vehicles in the diversion tunnels , and a classification used by Six Companies to avoid paying compensation claims.

No deaths of non-workers from pneumonia were recorded in Boulder City during the construction period. The initial plans for the facade of the dam, the power plant, the outlet tunnels and ornaments clashed with the modern look of an arch dam. The Bureau of Reclamation, more concerned with the dam's functionality, adorned it with a Gothic -inspired balustrade and eagle statues. This initial design was criticized by many as being too plain and unremarkable for a project of such immense scale, so Los Angeles-based architect Gordon B.

Kaufmann , then the supervising architect to the Bureau of Reclamation, was brought in to redesign the exteriors. At Kaufmann's request, Denver artist Allen Tupper True [77] was hired to handle the design and decoration of the walls and floors of the new dam.

True's design scheme incorporated motifs of the Navajo and Pueblo tribes of the region. With the agreement of Kaufmann and the engineers, True also devised an innovative color-coding for the pipes and machinery, which was implemented throughout all BOR projects. True's work on the Hoover Dam was humorously referred to in a poem published in The New Yorker , part of which read, "lose the spark, and justify the dream; but also worthy of remark will be the color scheme".

Complementing Kaufmann and True's work, the Norwegian-born, naturalized American sculptor Oskar J. Hansen designed many of the sculptures on and around the dam. His works include the monument of dedication plaza, a plaque to memorialize the workers killed and the bas-reliefs on the elevator towers. In his words, Hansen wanted his work to express "the immutable calm of intellectual resolution, and the enormous power of trained physical strength, equally enthroned in placid triumph of scientific accomplishment", because "[t]he building of Hoover Dam belongs to the sagas of the daring.

Surrounding the base of the monument is a terrazzo floor embedded with a "star map". The map depicts the Northern Hemisphere sky at the moment of President Roosevelt's dedication of the dam. This is intended to help future astronomers, if necessary, calculate the exact date of dedication. To put such large bronzes into place without marring the highly polished bronze surface, they were placed on ice and guided into position as the ice melted.

The bas-relief on the Arizona elevator depicts, in his words, "the visages of those Indian tribes who have inhabited mountains and plains from ages distant. Excavation for the powerhouse was carried out simultaneously with the excavation for the dam foundation and abutments.

A U-shaped structure located at the downstream toe of the dam, its excavation was completed in late with the first concrete placed in November Filling of Lake Mead began February 1, , even before the last of the concrete was poured that May.

In the latter half of , water levels in Lake Mead were high enough to permit power generation, and the first three Allis Chalmers built Francis turbine - generators , all on the Nevada side, began operating.

In March , one more Nevada generator went online and the first Arizona generator by August. By September , four more generators were operating, and the dam's power plant became the largest hydroelectricity facility in the world.

The final generator was not placed in service until , bringing the maximum generating capacity to 1, megawatts at the time. The smaller generators were used to serve smaller communities at a time when the output of each generator was dedicated to a single municipality, before the dam's total power output was placed on the grid and made arbitrarily distributable.

Before water from Lake Mead reaches the turbines, it enters the intake towers and then four gradually narrowing penstocks which funnel the water down towards the powerhouse. The entire flow of the Colorado River passes through the turbines. The spillways and outlet works jet-flow gates are rarely used.

The maximum net generation was The amount of electricity generated by Hoover Dam has been decreasing along with the falling water level in Lake Mead due to the prolonged drought in the s and high demand for the Colorado River's water. Lake Mead fell to a new record low elevation of 1, Control of water was the primary concern in the building of the dam. Power generation has allowed the dam project to be self-sustaining: Power is generated in step with and only with the release of water in response to downstream water demands.

Lake Mead and downstream releases from the dam also provide water for both municipal and irrigation uses. Water released from the Hoover Dam eventually reaches several canals. The Colorado River Aqueduct and Central Arizona Project branch off Lake Havasu while the All-American Canal is supplied by the Imperial Dam. Electricity from the dam's powerhouse was originally sold pursuant to a fifty-year contract, authorized by Congress in , which ran from to In , Congress passed a new statute which set power allocations from the dam from to The new arrangement will begin on October 1, Tourists gather around one of the generators in the Nevada wing of the powerhouse to hear its operation explained, September The dam is protected against over-topping by two spillways.

The spillway entrances are located behind each dam abutment , running roughly parallel to the canyon walls. Gates are raised and lowered depending on water levels in the reservoir and flood conditions. The large spillway tunnels have only been used twice, for testing in and because of flooding in During both times, when inspecting the tunnels after the spillways were used, engineers found major damage to the concrete linings and underlying rock. In response to this finding, the tunnels were patched with special heavy-duty concrete and the surface of the concrete was polished mirror-smooth.

The damage, also due to cavitation, led to the installation of aerators in the spillways. There are two lanes for automobile traffic across the top of the dam, which formerly served as the Colorado River crossing for U. Pending the completion of the bypass, restricted traffic was permitted over Hoover Dam. With the opening of the bypass, through traffic is no longer allowed across Hoover Dam; dam visitors are allowed to use the existing roadway to approach from the Nevada side and cross to parking lots and other facilities on the Arizona side.

Hoover Dam opened for tours in after its completion, but following Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, , it was closed to the public when the United States entered World War II, during which only authorized traffic, in convoys, was permitted. After the war, it reopened September 2, , and by , annual attendance had risen to , The dam closed on November 25, and March 31, , days of mourning in remembrance of Presidents Kennedy and Eisenhower.

In , a new visitors' center was built, and the following year, visits exceeded one million for the first time. The dam closed again to the public on September 11, ; modified tours were resumed in December and a new "Discovery Tour" was added the following year. As a result, few of True's decorations can now be seen by visitors. The changes in water flow and use caused by Hoover Dam's construction and operation have had a large impact on the Colorado River Delta.

The Colorado River had experienced natural flooding before the construction of the Hoover Dam. The dam eliminated the natural flooding, which threatened many species adapted to the flooding, including both plants and animals.

During the years of lobbying leading up to the passage of legislation authorizing the dam in , the press generally referred to the dam as "Boulder Dam" or as "Boulder Canyon Dam", even though the proposed site had shifted to Black Canyon.

The BCPA merely allows the government to "construct, operate, and maintain a dam and incidental works in the main stream of the Colorado River at Black Canyon or Boulder Canyon".

When Secretary Wilbur spoke at the ceremony starting the building of the railway between Las Vegas and the dam site on September 17, , he named the dam "Hoover Dam", citing a tradition of naming dams after Presidents, though none had been so honored during their terms of office. Wilbur justified his choice on the ground that Hoover was "the great engineer whose vision and persistence After Hoover's election defeat in and the accession of the Roosevelt administration, Secretary Ickes ordered on May 13, , that the dam be referred to as "Boulder Dam".

Ickes stated that Wilbur had been imprudent in naming the dam after a sitting president, that Congress had never ratified his choice, and that it had long been referred to as Boulder Dam. Taylor of Colorado on December 12, , [] but was likewise ignored by Ickes. When Ickes spoke at the dedication ceremony on September 30, , he was determined, as he recorded in his diary, "to try to nail down for good and all the name Boulder Dam.

In the following years, the name "Boulder Dam" failed to fully take hold, with many Americans using both names interchangeably and mapmakers divided as to which name should be printed. Memories of the Great Depression faded, and Hoover to some extent rehabilitated himself through good works during and after World War II.

In , a bill passed both Houses of Congress unanimously restoring the name "Hoover Dam. Hoover Dam was recognized as a National Civil Engineering Landmark in From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

For other uses, see Hoover Dam disambiguation. For other uses, see Boulder Dam disambiguation. National Register of Historic Places.

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